Comparing Views on Stanley Milgrams Experiment on Obedience

In 1963 a psychologist named Stanley Milgram conducted one of the greatest controversial experiments of all time. Milgram tested students from Yale to discover the obedience of people to an authoritative figure. The subjects, whom did not know the shocks would not hurt, had to shock a â€Å"learner† when the â€Å"learner† answered questions incorrectly. Milgram came under fire for this experiment, which many proclaimed was unethical. This experiment of Milgram’s stimulated the creation of several responsive articles. Two articles that respond to this experiment are authored by Diane Baumrind and Ian Parker. These two authors attempt to review the methods, results, and ethical issues of Milgram’s experiment. â€Å"Review of Stanley Milgram’s Experiments†¦show more content†¦Also, The Psychology Research Handbook says The Ethical Standards of Psychologist stated such rules in 1953, which Milgram clearly ignored (Leong and Austin 178). Parker and Baumrind also question the legitimacy of the experiment and whether the results were influenced by the authority figure alone or by multiple factors. Baumrind states that the experimenter’s cold demeanor and apathetic demands caused the subjects to act in ways they would not have regularly (Baumrind 225-227). The isolation of the subjects is another factor according to Baumrind. The lack of someone to strengthen the subject causes the subject to fold to the authority (Baumrind 225). Parker also questions the legitimacy of Milgram’s experiment. He says it is a combination of several different factors that will result in the subjects actions, not solely a man demanding a subject to complete a task. He continues in sayi ng that people’s actions are influenced by the situation and what is happening around them (Parker 238). Parker quotes Ross in saying, â€Å"We can take ordinary people and make them show a degree of obedience or conformity†¦ to a degree that we would normally assume you would only see in a rare few† (Parker 239). Parker continues with saying a subject’s obedience is not determined by a simple command but by a range of factors. In Understanding Behavior in the Milgram Obedience Experiment: The Role of Personality, Situations, and Their Interactions, the author Thomas Blass states thatShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Stanley Milgram s Perils Of Obedience Essay1709 Words   |  7 Pagesmanipulated the minds of masses for their own personal and political agenda. Still, many questions still remain prevalent as to how an individual reaches his or her decision on obedience in a distressing environment. Inspired by Nazi trials, Stanley Milgram, an American psycholog ist, questions the social norm in â€Å"Perils of Obedience† (1964), where he conducted a study to test how far the average American was willing to for under the pressures of an authority figure. Milgram s study showed that under theRead MoreThe Impact Of Technology On The Development Of Psychological Research1557 Words   |  7 Pagesdecisive role in the development of psychological research. Firstly, this essay will discuss the work by Stanley Milgram (1963) and his obedience studies which used technology to see how far people would obey an authority figure. I will follow this with the ethics argument that surrounded it, noting the issues raised by Diana Baumrind (1964). An updated version of Milgram’s (1963) experiment, carried out by Mel Slater and colleagues (2006) which used technology to replicate it. Moving on, friendshipRead MoreEthics in Research Psychology Essay1809 Words   |  8 Pagesprobability and the magnitude of potential harm in human research may vary in degree of risk from minimal to considerable (Leong Austin, 2006). To justify the risk - benefit ratio, the advantages and disadvantages of the research are weighed, comparing and carefully calculating the possible benefits to society or to the participant, to the perceived risks that the participant may face. If the risks - benefit ratio is affirming and there are no other less risky proced ures that could be used to generateRead MoreProsocial Behavior And Its Effect On Society2661 Words   |  11 Pagestowards the direction of helping people or society as a whole. It encourages the initiation and maintenance of relationships and balance. Obedience is defined as succumbing to the demands of a powerful, authority figure. The idea of submitting to another’s orders has taken a negative connotation both in the past and today. However, contrary to popular belief, with obedience comes along guidelines, rules and order. Therefore, though yielding to the demands of authority does not necessarily mean an individualRead MoreSocial Identity Theory And Fees Must Fall Protests Essay1257 Words   |  6 PagesComparisons allow for the growth and generation of stereotypes, prejudice and judgments placed on other groups (Hornsey, MJ. 2008). These stereotypes, prejudices and judgements are perpetuated in order to raise one group’s superiority (Rogers, W.S. 2011). Compari ng the groups that we, and other people belong to, is a way of justifying or validating our own self-worth and self-esteem (Tajfel, H. Turner, J.1986). Social comparison and social identity go hand-in-hand, due to social identity being the individual’sRead MoreSocial Psychology2623 Words   |  11 Pagespsychologists have conducted numerous experiments and concluded that, through various forms of social influence, groups can change their members thoughts, feelings, and behaviour, intentionally or unintentionally, as a result of the way the changed person perceives themselves in relationship to the influencer, other people and society in general (Hogg amp; Vaughan, 2008). Hogg and Vaughan (2008) stated that the three areas of social influence are obedience, compliance and conformity. RavenRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesKeep It Close? 438 Case Incident 2 The Persuasion Imperative 439 xvi CONTENTS 14 Conflict and Negotiation 445 A Definition of Conflict 446 Transitions in Conflict Thought 447 The Traditional View of Conflict 447 †¢ The Interactionist View of Conflict 447 †¢ Resolution-Focused View of Conflict 449 The Conflict Process 449 Stage I: Potential Opposition or Incompatibility 450 †¢ Stage II: Cognition and Personalization 451 †¢ Stage III: Intentions 452 †¢ Stage IV: Behavior 454 †¢ Stage V: OutcomesRead MoreDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 PagesINFLUENCE 279 280 SKILL ASSESSMENT 280 Diagnostic Surveys for Gaining Power and Influence Gaining Power and Influence 280 Using Influence Strategies 281 SKILL LEARNING 283 Building a Strong Power Base and Using Influence Wisely 283 A Balanced View of Power 283 Lack of Power 283 Abuse of Power 285 Strategies for Gaining Organizational Power 286 The Necessity of Power and Empowerment 286 Sources of Personal Power 288 Sources of Positional Power 293 Transforming Power into Influence 298 Influence

Descriptive Essay - Original Writing - 964 Words

Sometimes the end is closer than you could ever imagine. I never knew that it was my last day; nobody did. If they knew, maybe they would have treated me differently, but they can’t change that now. I’m dead. It was a normal Tuesday in November. The leaves were yellowing and falling off the trees. I admired the scenery as I walked to the bus stop, but then I coughed. The dark smoke from a cigarette filled my lungs. I looked up as the crusty, old man who lived up the street walked towards me, cigarette in hand. He looked me dead in the eye, inhaled the smoke of his cigarette, and exhaled it into my face. â€Å"Get a move on!† he yelled as I ran. Once the bus pulled up, I hopped on. I despised the bus. Everything from the stench of gasoline to†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"First off, it’s not a date. Secondly, turn it down a notch,† I said slightly embarrassed. We both laughed as we walked to class. Since it was the day of the prom, we only had school until after lunch. After that, we could go home and get ready for Prom. English, math, and science went as they normally did. Boring material with even more boring teachers. I hated school. I did not, however, hate learning. I liked being taught new things; I adored reading and writing. I just loathed the teachers. I disliked the way they treated students and their attitude towards learning. All they wanted to do is get paid and go home. I wished for a teacher that actually wanted to show up in school. Was that really too much to ask? After four long hours of class, it was finally lunch time. After that, we could go home! I loved lunch because it the only time I could talk to Marcus. We had no classes together and barely saw each other in the hallway. I walked into the already crowded cafeteria and looked around. Then I saw him at a table. Wow, he was perfect. Everything about him was from his blonde hair to the freckles scattered across his face. He turned in my direction and motioned for me to come and sit. I proudly walked over and took my seat next to the most popular guy in the junior class. I wished he was my boyfriend. He told Lauren that we were going to Prom as friends, but he could have asked any girl to go as a date. I hoped he really liked me. I turned to him to

Prufrock in Progress Free Essays

Prufrock in Progress In A Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock by T. S. We will write a custom essay sample on Prufrock in Progress or any similar topic only for you Order Now Eliot, the main character, J. Alfred Prufrock battles with his identification in the world. T. S. Eliot comprises this character with traits that any human being can relate to, like fear and desire, while ironically depicting the character as a monster. This dueling monster lives within Prufrock. His desire to be accepted is bogged down by his unworthy self-esteem because of his lack of human relationships. Prufrock is a relatable character at best, but his self-image ruins his potential of connecting with other people. Some scholars believe that Prufrock is yearning for a long lost lover throughout his love song, but most evidence shows that he is in confliction with himself. Sistani writes Internal Anxieties and Conflicts in The LOVE SONG of J. ALFRED PRUFROCK and states that Prufrock is searching for a female lover in his expression of A Love Song. Sistani believes that J. Alfred is experiencing internal conflict about a love source and the need of comfort through a relationship with another woman. This interpretation poses irony continuously established throughout the poem because Prufrock does not even love himself. Sistani explains this insecurity by analyzing, â€Å"The article concludes that the male character’s anxieties and conflicts are all the results of a past unsatisfactory mothering situation during his childhood,† (Sistani 478). This accusation is made from empty evidence that he desires a woman’s affection simply because he did not ever have it. This shows that J. Alfred Prufrock is in a habitual pattern of looking for love in all the wrong places. This interpretation by Sistani suggests that J. Alfred is speaking out in the desire for a loving partner. Sadly, Prufrock’s relationship with his mother was disappointing and unfulfilling, therefore; he longs for someone to fill this place. Unfortunately, his lack of love and acceptance for himself disables him from relating and loving or even accepting others. Prufrock speaks of attending a party in which none of the women are good enough for him. He talks of their skirts hitting the floor and is infatuated by the women, but then ironically changes his viewpoint stating, And I have known the eyes already, known them all- The eyes that fix you in a ormulated phase, And when I am formulated, Sprawling on a pin, When I am pinned and wriggling on the wall, Then how should I begin? (Gwynn 623). Prufrock is explaining how women prevent him from being his true self. How the presence of them makes him feel like an insect being pinned on the wall; examined and preserved for humans to review and criticize. He deems the question of how to begin the expression of self when all women seem to want is a fixed idea of what a man should be, and that is not what J. Alfred is. Sistani evaluates â€Å"As a dependent character with not good enough mothering, Prufrock, like a child, is always willing to attach to an external loved object to achieve support and gratification. This need for attachment, to relate to the desired object is constant in Prufrock,† (Sistani 481). The poem in itself is a projection of how Prufrock views himself in comparison to how the reader or another person would view him. He projects only what he wants to be known, and leaves the rest as mystery. He purposefully reveals only what he is comfortable revealing, which will never lead to a sustainable relationship. Sistani concludes in her article, â€Å"Prufrock, with unresolved internal conflicts and anxieties still dreams of the women to attach to in order to fulfill the need for security and comfort,† (Sistani 481). This analysis believes that Prufrock himself feels he will not be able to fully express himself or be accepted without a female partner to lovingly accept him first. Unfortunately and ironically, the cycle persists because J. Alfred Prufrock does not ever have the epiphany that his entire misery is derived from his lack of confidence and love for himself, not from a lack of an external object or person. On the other hand, Human Voices in Silent Seas: A Reading on Eliot’s Love Song by Videnov uses a psychoanalytic approach to interpret the poem sang by J. Alfred Prufrock. She expands on his internal conflict of worthiness. Throughout the poem, Prufrock battles with the public and private sides of himself, and whether his thoughts and feelings are worthy of expression. Videnov explains this contrast in character by stating, â€Å"Through jarring and easy transitions, Eliot contrasts the privacy of observation, insight, and dream with the social functioning of man, his appraisal by others, and his appraisal of himself as reflected in â€Å"the eyes† (55), thoughts, and words of others. † (Videnov, Valentin A. , 126). Videnov also analyzes the internal and external influences on J. Alfred Prufrock’s psyche. The internal conflict that J. Alfred Prufrock exhibits throughout his love song is evident in his lack of self-confidence that leads to a feeling of disconnection with the human population. On one hand, Prufrock expresses the desire to cultivate a relationship with the external world, or a lover; yet on the other hand, he lets his insecurities define him and refuses to let himself engage in relationships with other people. Videnov explains this by describing Prufrock’s quest, â€Å"a quest for belonging, the examination of which could yield the message of the poem and the ultimately optimistic idea of love, as the title suggests, lurking behind the apparently tragic finale,† (Videnov, Valentin A. , 126). This statement establishes the irony in the desire to fulfill a journey of love, yet the inevitable misery Prufrock lives. The psychoanalytical dynamic of the ego and the true self is brought through in Prufrock’s character. T. S. Eliot repeatedly uses the pronouns, â€Å"you and I,† to describe this relationship of the ego and true self that Prufrock experiences. In the interpretation of Human Voices in Silent Seas: A Reading on Eliot’s Love Song, Videnov declares that these two entities are both representative of J. Alfred Prufrock himself. â€Å"You† represents the public face of Alfred J. Prufrock, the ego; and â€Å"I† represents the true self, the self that wants to be expressed but is prevented by Prufrock’s fear and insecurity. The opposing characters within Prufrock are further extended through the symbols of afternoon and evening. The imagery of afternoon is a representation of the light, the desire to express, and the need for connection. The evening represents a darkness, or comfort in the habitual pattern of the introverted mind and it’s self-destructive thoughts. Prufrock expresses his mental state when he says, ‘the evening sleeps so peacefully. † (Gwynn 624) In saying this, Prufrock is confirming within himself his comfort in the thought pattern of darkness. This leads him to question, â€Å"Would it have been worthwhile? † (Gwynn 625), referring to the desired human connection he wants deep down. He truly believes that expression of the self and what he, as an individual has to say and share, are not going to be acc epted by others. Because of his fear of expression, the singer sings a song of love, but predominately and more ironically, a song of sadness. He has continued his pattern of introversion to such an extreme that he suffers from continual loneliness and disassociation. He proves this dissociation when he ends the poem with an insight of his fantasy world of mermaids where he retreats, when he is lonely. He looks upon the beautiful creatures in awe of their unifying world; yet won’t even allow himself to be happy in his fantasy. He states this saying, â€Å"I do not think that they will sing to me,† (Gwynn 625). This prevents him from dreaming himself to a healthy and loving relationship with himself, or anyone else. The lines â€Å"let us go† (Gwynn 622) used repeatedly are incredibly significant in this poem. Us† being the internal representation of the two conflicting sides that exist within Prufrock, as he yearns for release of this horrible cycle. What J. Alfred Prufrock does not understand is that every individual goes through this experience of questioning self worth. The underlying ironic theme of this poem is the relation of the reader to Prufrock himself. This is a cry of the main character to emerge from the inn er seclusion that he feels – a bonding of the afternoon and evening, the light and dark, inner and outer; a battle for the merging of duality to become a union. In â€Å"an overwhelming question† in The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock by Xue, the main question that J. Alfred Prufrock is consistently in conflict with is whether or not to reveal his true self. Prufrock’s dueling character is established through the language of the poem. The internal conflict of Prufrock is addressed through repetitive language. â€Å"Prufrock is trying to express some deeper philosophical insight or disillusionment with society, but fears rejection. † (Xue 79). This fear causes his misery. Prufrock’s character is dominated by his uncertainty. The repetition of the lines, â€Å"there will be time,† (Gwynn 622) pose irony in the poem. Prufrock is hopeful that he will be able to truly open up to the world in time, yet currently; he is perpetuating his cycle of loneliness by assuming that these desires will naturally unfold without regarded effort. Xue states this in saying, â€Å"The phrase ‘There will be time,’ repeated five times between lines 23 and 36, represents his hesitation and delay, in order to conceal his inner anxiety to the world,† (Xue 80). Essentially, Prufrock is only happy when he is alone with his thoughts because there are no external influences to judge him, yet this is also his cause of misery. Irony is also addressed in the â€Å"you and I† (Gwynn 621) characterization of Prufrock. Xue states the psychoanalytical interpretation of these pronouns, â€Å"In the poem, Prufrock is divided in two selves. One is persuading Prufrock to ask the ‘overwhelming question’, while the other is trying to prevent it,† (Xue 82). Prufrock’s soul really desires is the opposite of what it endures. At the root of his inability to express is his insecurity. Prufrock asks, â€Å"Do I dare Disturb the Universe? † (Gywnn 623) which is direct evidence that Prufrock has serious lack of self-confidence. J. Alfred directly articulates his anxiety about interaction by describing his unappealing physical attributes. He quivers in the thought, â€Å"With a bald spot in the middle of my hair- ‘They will say: ‘How his hair is growing thin! ’† (Gwynn 623). This statement is directly in connection with Prufrock’s physical insecurity, as well as his emotional insecurity because of his self-image. He uses this as an excuse for his anti-social behavior. He manifests this negative expression of self by bolding stating that if he were to share with another he would, â€Å"Die with a dying fall,† (Gywnn 623). This self-conscious attitude and fear of being mocked for this truth is the entire reason for J. Alfred Prufrock’s cyclical misery. He does not love himself; therefore, he cannot find or receive or the love of another. If he never learns to share his truth, he will never understand the beauty of human connection. The reality of how much Prufrock shares about himself is shown in the line, â€Å"To prepare to meet the faces that you meet; to murder to create,† (Gwynn 622). The real self or â€Å"I†, as Videnov described in Human Voices in Silent Seas, is lost or â€Å"murdered† in society to â€Å"create† a false self or alter ego that functions in society. Another line stating this ego-oriented society and repeating the symbol of darkness reads, â€Å"the evening spread out against the sky,† (Gwynn 622) which refers to the apparent darkness of all humans all hidden under the masks of ego. Yet, if J. Alfred Prufrock understands this is a battle of every individual, he would be able to relate. In conclusion, it is J. Alfred Prufrock’s choice to live in misery. If he were open to see himself as a mirror image of others he would realize that every individual has insecurities of their own. Therefore, I agree with scholars Videnov and Xue in the psychoanalytical approach to J. Alfred Prufrock battling with his own ego versus the exploration and expression of his true self. If he deemed himself worthy of external expression then he would finally be able to share in love with himself and in turn, the rest of humanity. Works Cited Gwynn, R. S. Literature: A Pocket Anthology. 5th. New York: Pearson Education, Inc. , 2012. 21-625. Print. Videnov, Valentin A. â€Å"Human Voices In Silent Seas: A Reading Of Eliot’s Love Song. † Explicator 67. 2 (2009): 126-130. Academic Search Complete. Web. 10 Nov. 2012. Sistani, Roohollah Reesi. â€Å"Internal Anxieties And Conflicts In â€Å"The LOVE SONG Of J. ALFRED PRUFROCK. † European Journal Of Social Science 17. 4 (2010): 478-489. Academic Search Complete. Web. 27 Nov. 2012. Xue, Haiqin . â€Å"On â€Å"An Overwhelming Question'† In The Love Song Of J. Alfred Prufrock. † Canadian Social Science 5. 2 (2009): 79-82. Academic Search Complete. Web. 10 Nov. 2012. How to cite Prufrock in Progress, Papers

Business Law

Question: Discuss about the Business Law ? Answer : Introduction From the onset it is prudent to underscore the fact that for a contract to be valid there must be a consideration. Consideration must be of value in the eyes in the eyes of the law. For consideration to be valuable there must be a legal benefit or a legal detriment. What amounts to a valuable consideration appears to be flexibly encapsulated in the prominent maxim; consideration needs not to be adequate but sufficient. There has been a raging debate on whether performing a preexisting legal duty amounts to any benefit and the prevailing argument is that it may incur a factual benefit on the promisor and a factual detriment to the promissee. Thus the critical is whether the preexisting legal duty will amount to sufficient consideration. This paper will critically examine the doctrine of consideration in relation to sufficient consideration rule. It also seeks to answer the question on what amounts to a sufficient consideration. The main contention in this paper is that even though con sideration should be attached to value which is regarded as a benefit or a detriment, it need not to be adequate. Sufficient Consideration The rule that consideration must be sufficient and not adequate implies that there must be something of value that is exchanged between the parties. Provided that value has been attached to consideration the court will not pay attention to its adequacy.[1] A valuable consideration in the strict sense of the law entails an interest, detriment, loss, forbearance, benefit of a party to the contract.[2] This implies that even a nominal consideration will be sufficient for the formation of a contract. In Chappell v Nestl[3] the court held that the provision of chocolate bar wrappers was sufficient consideration because they increased sales and thus were of value. The fundamental question is thus how the court determines that consideration is of value and thus can be considered to be sufficient. It has been argued that mere giving up a right that one does not have is not valuable consideration. In White vs. Bluet[4] a son was given money by his father following a promise that he will not complain about the distribution of his father estate in his will. The issue before the court was whether the promise not to complain was a valuable consideration. The court ruled that the son had no right to complain and that such a right is not a valuable consideration in the strict legal sense. On the other hand, what amounts to sufficient consideration may be determined by the parties to the contract at the time of making and concluding the contract. It is upon the parties to the contract to determine when making the agreement what will be adequate consideration but in the eyes of the law the court will not pay attention to adequacy of consideration but onl y sufficiency. It bears noting that although the consideration must incorporate a bargaining process, the bargain should not necessarily be a good bargain.[5] It is imperative to note that for consideration to be sufficient both benefit and detriment occur to the parties although there is not mandatory requirement that they should be both present.[6] Consideration must be sufficient in the eyes of the laws and this implies that the court has the discretion within its jurisdiction to determine the consideration given is sufficient or not.[7] Although the law provides that there must be consideration for any legal contractual relationship it is worth noting that the consideration should not be in equal and exact value to the benefit of loss that has been suffered. If the consideration has value in the legal sense the court will not bother to examine or try to find out the exact value or quantity. Essentially, this implies that if a car is worth $10000 and it sold at $100, the sale price will be regarded as sufficient consideration in the legal sense although it is quite glaring that it is inadequate. In the case of Thomas vs. Thomas[8] the executors of an estate agreed that the widow will pay an annual rent of $1 and maintain the house as long as she remained a widow of the deceased. The issue before the court was whether there was sufficient consideration. The court held that the payment of $ 1 as rent was sufficient consideration. A consideration that is normal normally shows that the promisor has taken his promise to b e a serious undertaking which can be legally enforced. It is also worth noting that a consideration that was given in the past can not be relied on through a promises hat is given in the present. In other words the general rule is that past consideration is not sufficient consideration or good consideration.[9] The promise always comes first then the consideration follows. In the case of ReMcArdle[10] the plaintiff had undertaken to conduct some renovations in her husbands house. She successful completed the renovations and asked the siblings in law to contribute towards the renovations she had made. The siblings promised to make the contributions but later they did not honor the promise. It was held that the promises had been made after a consideration had already been provided and therefore there was no sufficient consideration in that case. In addition the consideration that had been provided was part of her duty to do so as the wife of the deceased. Another finding was made in Roscola v. Thomas[11] where the claimant bought a horse from the defendant and after the transaction had been completed the defendant told the claimant that horse was sound and free from vice. The claimant realized that the horse was not actually sound as was promised. The court held that the consideration had already been provided and the promise was made after consideration has been made therefore a consideration made in the past cannot be sufficient. However, past consideration will only be sufficient consideration if the promisor and the promissee had an initial agreement that the promissee will supply him the goods. In Lampleigh v Braithwait[12] the defendant was guilty for the crime of murder but he needed pardon from the king. He therefore requested the plaintiff to obtain the pardon from the king for him. The plaintiff successfully obtained the pardon and the defendant promised to pay him for that. It was held that consideration had been provided f ollowing the request of the promisor and therefore it was sufficient consideration. The defendant was therefore liable to pay for the promise. If the goods are actually delivered and the promisor makes a promise to pay, the past consideration will be deemed as sufficient consideration. The Privy Council in Pao On v Lau Yiu Long[13] held that past consideration can be sufficient consideration if it is capable of being remunerated and if the partied had an earlier agreement that consideration will be provided first followed by the promise. Lord Scarman remarked that a sufficient consideration implies that it must be real, tangible and it must be attached to some value. The general rule is that a consideration that is illusory is not a sufficient consideration. Illusory considerations are given in the following circumstances, where one is given a promise to do that which is his contractual obligation.[14] In Stilk v. Myrick[15] the defendant promised to pay the plaintiff during a voyage. While they were sailing two of the crew men left the ship and the defendant promised to pay the plaintiff the salaries of the two crewmen who had left. When the ship arrived at the port the defendant refused to pay the plaintiff the amount that was promised. It was held that the doing that which one has an existing contractual obligation to perform does not amount to sufficient consideration. On the other hand performance of an existing legal duty does not also amount to a sufficient consideration in the eyes of the law and it is also regarded as an illusory consideration.[16] In Collins v. Godfroy[17] the plaintiff had been summoned by the court to come be a witnes s in a case that the defendant was part of. The plaintiff never adduced any evidence but the court required that he be available in court through out the session. When the trial had concluded the defendant gave the plaintiff an invoice that indicated that he was being paid for being a witness. Later the defendant refused to pay and the plaintiff sued. The court held that the plaintiff had a legal obligation to perform the act and therefore the consideration provided was not sufficient consideration. If a person undertakes act that is not permitted by law then the act is not a sufficient consideration to a promise. This position was held in Nerot v. Wallace and Others[18] where commissioners who were conducting a bankruptcy process were promised that they will be paid for not investigating a person who was supposed to be adjudged bankrupt. It was held that the act was an illegal act and therefore it could not be a sufficient consideration that has value in the strict legal sense. The performance of an existing legal duty can be a sufficient consideration if there is a practical benefit to of the promise. In Ward v. Byham[19] where a mother promised the father that she will look after the child well and ensure that he is happy and the father will have to contribute towards the maintenance of the child. It was held that the mothers act of taking care of the child although it is her duty to do so amounted to a sufficient consideration. Lord denning held that a promise to do that which one is legally meant to do can be sufficient consideration for a new promise. It has been argued the ratio decidendi of the case by lord denning is ambiguous and has not given a clear definition if the sufficient consideration in the facts of the case. However, the decisions appear to have been made in the interest of justice. The practical benefit rule was applied by in Williams v Roffey Bros Nicholls (contractor)[20] where the court held that the promise to make extra payment on an already existing duty was a sufficient consideration because there was a practical benefit following the new promise. In Musumeci v Winadell Pty Ltd.[21] the court held that a promise that has been made to reduce the usual rent charged and the consideration that was given by the tenant was sufficient consideration that had value in the legal sense. It has also been held that a promise that has been made to do an act that is vague and uncertain is not enforceable because the uncertain act does not amount to a sufficient consideration. This position was affirmed in White v. Bluett[22] where the court held that the consideration was vague and uncertain and it could not amount to a sufficient consideration. Conclusion It can be conceded that the doctrine of sufficient consideration has a wide application in various contract formations and the making of promises. It is also a plausible conclusion that consideration must neither be of commercial value nor make any economical sense.[23] It can be observed from the illustrations made above that the court has been careful to ensure that it enforces the wishes and express agreement of the parties. This is based on the fact that court has not paid attention to equivalence in value of the considerations that have ben exchanged by the parties. The court has accepted that no matter how trivial consideration may be it is regarded as sufficient consideration in the legal sense if it is valuable. Consideration must not be of a high value which implies that it must not be adequate. It can be concluded that the rule that consideration must be sufficient and not adequate has acted as a preventive mechanism to prevent the promisor from not going back on his promis e to claim for an adequate consideration. References Chappell Co Ltd v Nestle Co Ltd [1959] UKHL 1 Collins v Godefrey (1831) 1 B Ad 950 Eastwood v Kenyon (1840), 11 AdE 438 Ewan McKendrick, Contract Law: Text, Cases and Materials, (Oxford University Press, 2005) John Carter, and David Harland, Cases and materials on contract law in Australia ,(Butterworths 1998 Joseph Chitty, Chitty on Contracts, (Sweet Maxwell 2004) Lampleigh v Braithwaite [1615] EWHC KB J17 Musumeci v Winadell Pty Ltd. (1994) 34 NSWLR 723 Pao on v Lau Yiu Long [1979] 3 All ER 65 Patrick Atiyah, Essays on Contract, (Oxford University Press, 1990) Poole, J (2006) Textbook on Contract Law, Oxford University Press Re McArdle (1951) Ch 669 Robert Upex, and Bennett Geoffery, "Davies On Contract. (Sweet Maxwell London,2004) Roscorla v. Thomas (1842) 3 QB 234 Stilk v Myrick [1809] EWHC KB J58 Thomas v Thomas (1842) 2 QB 851 Ward v Byham [1956] 1 WLR 496 White v Bluett (1853) 23 LJ Ex 36 Williams v Roffey Bros Nicholls (Contractors) Ltd [1989] EWCA Civ 5 [1] Upex Robert., and Bennett Geoffery "Davies On Contract. (Sweet Maxwell London,2004) [2] Currie v Misa (1875) LR 10 Ex 153 [3] [1959] UKHL 1 [4] (1853) 23 LJ Ex 36 [5] McKendrick Ewan, Contract Law: Text, Cases and Materials, (Oxford University Press, 2005) [6] Ibid n4 [7] Ibid n4 [8] (1842) 2 QB 851 [9] Eastwood v Kenyon (1840), 11 AdE 438 [10] (1951) Ch 669 [11] (1842) 3 QB 234 [12] [1615] EWHC KB J17 If a person undertakes act that is not permitted by law then the act is not a sufficient consideration to a promise. This position was held in Nerot v. Wallace and Others[18] where commissioneReferencesrs who were [13] [1979] 3 All ER 65 [14] Carter John, and Harland, David. Cases and materials on contract law in Australia ,(Butterworths 1998) [15] [1809] EWHC KB J58 [16] Chitty Joseph, Chitty on Contracts, (Sweet Maxwell 2004) [17] (1831) 1 B Ad 950 [18] 462 U.S. 296 (1983) [19] [1956] 1 WLR 496 [20] [1989] EWCA Civ 5 [21] (1994) 34 NSWLR 723 [22] (1853) 23 LJ Ex 36 [23] Atiyah, Patrick. Essays on Contract, (Oxford University Press, 1990)